Politická ekonomie 2026, 74(4) Special issue:720-750 | DOI: 10.18267/j.polek.1515

Energy Poverty and Women in Turkey: Household-level Insights and Policy Implications

Eyup Emre Ulug ORCID..., Emrah Kocak ORCID..., Burcu Oralhan ORCID..., Fatma Unlu ORCID...
Eyup Emre Ulug, Department of Economics, Nuh Naci Yazgan University, Kayseri, Turkey
Emrah Kocak, Department of Economics, Erciyes University, Kayseri; Muma College of Business, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida, USA
Burcu Oralhan , Department of Business Administration, Nuh Naci Yazgan University, Kayseri, Turkey
Fatma Unlu (corresponding author), Department of Economics, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey

This study examines the impact of women's income, employment, education, health and household characteristics on energy poverty in Turkey. The research utilizes logit and probit regression methods to analyse household data comprehensively, providing a detailed understanding of the factors influencing energy poverty. According to the results, women with any income - particularly those with above-average income - significantly reduce household energy poverty. While the impact of women's employment type on energy poverty is mixed, paid employment strongly reduces it. Higher levels of women's education decrease the likelihood of energy poverty. Women's health insurance does not significantly affect energy poverty; however, households with disabled women are more likely to experience it. The gender of the household head does not affect energy poverty. The study emphasizes that empowering women through greater access to education, job opportunities and financial resources is essential not only for individual well-being but also as a crucial strategy for effectively reducing energy poverty at the household level.

Keywords: Energy, gender, logistic regression, marginal effect, education
JEL classification: D13, I32, J16, Q48

Received: January 8, 2025; Revised: May 5, 2025; Accepted: May 26, 2025; Prepublished online: December 16, 2025; Published: September 1, 2026  Show citation

ACS AIP APA ASA Harvard Chicago Chicago Notes IEEE ISO690 MLA NLM Turabian Vancouver
Ulug, E.E., Kocak, E., Oralhan, B., & Unlu, F. (2026). Energy Poverty and Women in Turkey: Household-level Insights and Policy Implications. Politická ekonomie, 74(Special Issue), 720-750. doi: 10.18267/j.polek.1515
Download citation
  • BibTeX (.bib)
  • Bookends (.ris)
  • EasyBib (.ris)
  • EndNote (.enw)
  • EndNote 8 (.xml)
  • ISI WoS (.isi)
  • Medlars (.medlars)
  • Mendeley (.ris)
  • MODS (.xml)
  • Papers (.ris)
  • RefWorks (.txt)
  • RefManager (.ris)
  • RIS (.ris)
  • MS Word (.xml)
  • Zotero (.ris)
    • Open full article

    References

    1. Abbas, K., Li, S., Xu, D., et al. (2020). Do socioeconomic factors determine household multidimensional energy poverty? Empirical evidence from South Asia. Energy Policy, 146, 111754. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111754 Go to original source...
    2. Acharya, R. H., Sadath, A. C. (2019). Energy poverty and economic development: Household-level evidence from India. Energy and Buildings, 183, 785-791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.11.047 Go to original source...
    3. Amin, A., Liu, Y., Yu, J., et al. (2020). How does energy poverty affect economic development? A panel data analysis of South Asian countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(25), 31623-31635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09173-6 Go to original source...
    4. Apergis, N., Polemis, M., Soursou, S. E. (2022). Energy poverty and education: Fresh evidence from a panel of developing countries. Energy Economics, 106, 105430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2021.105430 Go to original source...
    5. Aristondo, O., Onaindia, E. (2018). Inequality of energy poverty between groups in Spain. Energy, 153, 431-442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.04.029 Go to original source...
    6. Asian Development Bank (2012). Gender tool kit: Energy. Going beyond the meter. Mandaluyong City: Asian Development Bank. ISBN 978-92-9092-751-8.
    7. Atun, R., Aydin, S., Chakraborty, S., et al. (2013). Universal health coverage in Turkiye: enhancement of equity. The Lancet, 382, 65-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61051-X Go to original source...
    8. Awan, A., Bilgili, F., Rahut, D. B. (2022). Energy poverty trends and determinants in Pakistan: Empirical evidence from eight waves of HIES 1998-2019. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 158, 112157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2022.112157 Go to original source...
    9. Awaworyi Churchill, S., Smyth, R. (2020). Ethnic diversity, energy poverty and the mediating role of trust: Evidence from household panel data for Australia. Energy Economics, 86, 104663. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2020.104663 Go to original source...
    10. Banerjee, R., Mishra, V., Maruta, A. A. (2021). Energy poverty, health and education outcomes: Evidence from the developing world. Energy Economics, 101, 105447. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2021.105447 Go to original source...
    11. Bao, H. X. H., Li, S. H. (2020). Housing wealth and residential energy consumption. Energy Policy, 143, 111581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2020.111581 Go to original source...
    12. Barnes, D. F., Khandker, S. R., Samad, H. A. (2011). Energy poverty in rural Bangladesh. Energy Policy, 39(2), 894-904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.014 Go to original source...
    13. Bezerra, P., Cruz, T., Mazzone, A., et al. (2022). The multidimensionality of energy poverty in Brazil: A historical analysis. Energy Policy, 171, 113268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2022.113268 Go to original source...
    14. Birgi, O. G., Fuhrmann, A., Habersbrunner, K., et al. (2021). Gender and energy poverty. Facts and arguments. EmpowerMed.
    15. Boardman, B. (2013) Fixing Fuel Poverty. London: Routledge. Go to original source...
    16. Büchs, M., Bahaj, A. B., Blunden, L., et al. (2018). Sick and stuck at home - how poor health increases electricity consumption and reduces opportunities for environmentally-friendly travel in the United Kingdom. Energy Research and Social Science, 44, 250-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2018.04.041 Go to original source...
    17. Cao, Y., Tabasam, A. H., Ali, S. A., et al. (2022). The dynamic role of sustainable development goals to eradicate the multidimensional poverty: evidence from emerging economy. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istrazivanja, 36(3), 2153715. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2022.2153715 Go to original source...
    18. Castaño-Rosa, R., Okushima, S. (2021). Prevalence of energy poverty in Japan: A comprehensive analysis of energy poverty vulnerabilities. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 145, 111006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111006 Go to original source...
    19. Castor, J., Bacha, K., Fuso Nerini, F. (2020). SDGs in action: A novel framework for assessing energy projects against the sustainable development goals. Energy Research & Social Science, 68, 101556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101556 Go to original source...
    20. Chen, C. F., Feng, J., Luke, N., et al. (2022). Localized energy burden, concentrated disadvantage, and the feminization of energy poverty. iScience, 25(4), 104139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2022.104139 Go to original source...
    21. Choudhuri, P., Desai, S. (2020). Gender inequalities and household fuel choice in India. Journal of Cleaner Production, 265, 121487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121487 Go to original source...
    22. Clancy, J., Daskalova, V., Feenstra, M., et al. (2017). Gender perspective on access to energy in the EU. Brussels: European Parliament.
    23. Crentsil, A. O., Asuman, D., Fenny, A. P. (2019). Assessing the determinants and drivers of multidimensional energy poverty in Ghana. Energy Policy, 133, 110884. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.110884 Go to original source...
    24. Day, R., Walker, G., Simcock, N. (2016). Conceptualising energy use and energy poverty using a capabilities framework. Energy Policy, 93, 255-264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2016.03.019 Go to original source...
    25. De Lauretis, S., Ghersi, F., Cayla, J. M. (2017). Energy consumption and activity patterns: An analysis extended to total time and energy use for French households. Applied Energy, 206, 634-648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.08.180 Go to original source...
    26. Dogan, E., Madaleno, M., Inglesi-Lotz, R., et al. (2022). Race and energy poverty: Evidence from African-American households. Energy Economics, 108, 105908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2022.105908 Go to original source...
    27. Dundar, M., Uzak, A. S., Karabulut, Y. (2010). Healthcare in overview of Turkiye. EPMA Journal, 1(4), 587-594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13167-010-0049-7 Go to original source...
    28. Fry, J. M., Farrell, L., Temple, J. B. (2022). Energy poverty and retirement income sources in Australia. Energy Economics, 106, 105793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2021.105793 Go to original source...
    29. Gafa, D. W., Egbendewe, A. Y. G. (2021). Energy poverty in rural West Africa and its determinants: Evidence from Senegal and Togo. Energy Policy, 156, 112476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112476 Go to original source...
    30. Genc, Y. (2016). Social problems and expectations of disabled people. Journal of Social Policy Studies, 35(2).
    31. Gray, L., Boyle, A., Francks, E., et al. (2019). The power of small-scale solar: Gender, energy poverty, and entrepreneurship in Tanzania. Development in Practice, 29(1), 26-39. https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2018.1526257 Go to original source...
    32. Halkos, G. E., Gkampoura, E. C. (2021). Evaluating the effect of economic crisis on energy poverty in Europe. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 144, 110981. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110981 Go to original source...
    33. Hasanujzaman, M., Omar, M. A. (2022). Household and non-household factors influencing multidimensional energy poverty in Bangladesh: Demographics, urbanization and regional differentiation via a multilevel modeling approach. Energy Research & Social Science, 92, 102803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102803 Go to original source...
    34. Hatak, I., Zhou, H. (2021). Health as Human Capital in Entrepreneurship: Individual, Extension, and Substitution Effects on Entrepreneurial Success. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice 45(1), 18-42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1042258719867559 Go to original source...
    35. Heltberg, R. (2004). Fuel switching: Evidence from eight developing countries. Energy Economics, 26(5), 869-887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2004.04.018 Go to original source...
    36. Hermawati, W., Ririh, K. R., Ariyani, L., et al. (2023). Sustainable and green energy development to support women's empowerment in rural areas of Indonesia: Case of micro-hydro power implementation. Energy for Sustainable Development, 73, 218-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2023.02.001 Go to original source...
    37. Hosan, S., Rahman, M. M., Karmaker, S. C., et al. (2023). Remittances and multidimensional energy poverty: Evidence from a household survey in Bangladesh. Energy, 262(A), 125326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2022.125326 Go to original source...
    38. Hosier, R. H., Dowd, J. (1987). Household fuel choice in Zimbabwe. An empirical test of the energy ladder hypothesis. Resources and Energy, 9(4), 347-361. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-0572(87)90003-X Go to original source...
    39. IEA (2002). World Energy Outlook 2002. Paris: International Energy Agency. [Retrieved 2024-04-12] Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-outlook-2002
    40. IEA (2022). Tracking SDG7: The Energy Progress Report 2022. Paris: International Energy Agency. [Retrieved 2024-04-12] Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/tracking-sdg7-the-energy-progress-report-2022.
    41. Ivanova, D., Middlemiss, L. (2021). Characterizing the energy use of disabled people in the European Union towards inclusion in the energy transition. Nature Energy, 6(12), 1188-1197. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-021-00932-4 Go to original source...
    42. Kazembe, L. N. (2020). Women empowerment in Namibia: Measurement, determinants and geographical disparities. World Development Perspectives, 19, 100211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2020.100211 Go to original source...
    43. Koomson, I., Churchill, S. A. (2022). Employment precarity and energy poverty in Post-Apartheid South Africa: Exploring the racial and ethnic dimensions. Energy Economics, 110, 106026. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2022.106026 Go to original source...
    44. Lambrou, Y., Piana, G. (2006). Energy and Gender in rural sustainable development. Energy and Gender Issues. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
    45. Li, W., Chien, F., Hsu, C. C., et al. (2021). Nexus between energy poverty and energy efficiency: Estimating the long-run dynamics. Resources Policy, 72, 102063. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12053-021-10001-0 Go to original source...
    46. Lin, B., Zhao, H. (2021). Does off-farm work reduce energy poverty? Evidence from rural China. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 27, 1822-1829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spc.2021.04.023 Go to original source...
    47. Listo, R. (2018). Gender myths in energy poverty literature: A Critical Discourse Analysis. Energy Research and Social Science, 38, 9-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2018.01.010 Go to original source...
    48. Nelson, S., Kuriakose, A. T. (2017). Gender and renewable energy: entry points for women's livelihoods and employment. Washington, D.C.: Climate Investment Funds.
    49. Nguyen, C. P., Su, T. D. (2021). Does energy poverty matter for gender inequality? Global evidence. Energy for Sustainable Development, 64, 35-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2021.07.003 Go to original source...
    50. Nussbaumer, P., Bazilian, M., Modi, V. (2012). Measuring energy poverty: Focusing on what matters. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(1), 231-243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2011.07.150 Go to original source...
    51. Oliveras, L., Peralta, A., Palència, L., et al. (2021). Energy poverty and health: Trends in the European Union before and during the economic crisis, 2007-2016. Health and Place, 67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2020.102294 Go to original source...
    52. Pachauri, S., Rao, N. D. (2013). Gender impacts and determinants of energy poverty: Are we asking the right questions? Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 5(2), 205-215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.04.006 Go to original source...
    53. Pan, L., Biru, A., Lettu, S. (2021). Energy poverty and public health: Global evidence. Energy Economics, 101, 105423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2021.105423 Go to original source...
    54. Pangaribowo, E. H., Iskandar, D. D. (2022). Exploring socio-economic determinants of energy choices for cooking: the case of eastern Indonesian households. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25, 7135-7148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02362-y Go to original source...
    55. Permana, A. S., Aziz, N. A., Siong, H. C. (2015). Is mom energy efficient? A study of gender, household energy consumption and family decision making in Indonesia. Energy Research and Social Science, 6, 78-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2014.12.007 Go to original source...
    56. Phoumin, H., Kimura, F. (2019). Cambodia's energy poverty and its effects on social wellbeing: Empirical evidence and policy implications. Energy Policy, 132, 283-289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.05.032 Go to original source...
    57. Poblete-Cazenave, M., Pachauri, S. (2021). A model of energy poverty and access: Estimating household electricity demand and appliance ownership. Energy Economics, 98, 105266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2021.105266 Go to original source...
    58. Primc, K., Slabe-Erker, R., Majcen, B. (2019). Constructing energy poverty profiles for an effective energy policy. Energy Policy, 128, 727-734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2019.01.059 Go to original source...
    59. Rewald, R. (2017). Energy and Women and Girls: Analyzing the Needs, Uses and Impacts of Energy on Women and Girls in the Developing World. Nairobi: OXFAM.
    60. Robinson, C. (2019). Energy poverty and gender in England: A spatial perspective. Geoforum, 104, 222-233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2019.05.001 Go to original source...
    61. Rojas, A. V. (2020). Tracking Increase in Women's Employment in the Renewable Energy Sector under NDC targets: An Employment Assessment of Renewable Energy Targets under the Nationally Determined Contributions (NEAR-NDC) Project. Seoul: Global Green Growth Institute.
    62. SESRIC (2015). Measurement of Poverty in OIC Member Countries. Ankara: The Statistical, Economic and Social Research and Training Centre for Islamic Countries (SESRIC). ISBN 978-975-6427-36-1.
    63. Sharma, V., Dash, M. (2022). Household energy use pattern in rural India: A path towards sustainable development. Environmental Challenges, 6, 100404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2021.100404 Go to original source...
    64. Snell, C., Bevan, M., Thomson, H. (2015). Justice, fuel poverty and disabled people in England. Energy Research and Social Science, 10, 123-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2015.07.012 Go to original source...
    65. Soko³owski, J., Lewandowski, P., Kie³czewska, A., et al. (2020). A multidimensional index to measure energy poverty: the Polish case. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning and Policy, 15(2), 92-112. https://doi.org/10.1080/15567249.2020.1742817 Go to original source...
    66. Son, H., Yoon, S. (2020). Reducing energy poverty: Characteristics of household electricity use in Vietnam. Energy for Sustainable Development, 59, 62-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2020.08.007 Go to original source...
    67. Sovacool, B. K. (2012). The political economy of energy poverty: A review of key challenges. Energy for Sustainable Development, 16(3), 272-282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.05.006 Go to original source...
    68. Sy, S. A., Mokaddem, L. (2022). Energy poverty in developing countries: A review of the concept and its measurements. Energy Research and Social Science, 89, 102562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102562 Go to original source...
    69. Tekgüç, H., Eryar, D., Cindoğlu, D. (2017). Women's Tertiary Education Masks the Gender Wage Gap in Turkiye. Journal of Labor Research, 38(3), 360-386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12122-017-9243-x Go to original source...
    70. Thomson, H., Snell, C., Bouzarovski, S. (2017). Health, well-being and energy poverty in Europe: A comparative study of 32 European countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(6). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14060584 Go to original source...
    71. Tu, G., Morrissey, K., Sharpe, R. A., et al. (2022). Combining self-reported and sensor data to explore the relationship between fuel poverty and health well-being in UK social housing. Wellbeing, Space and Society, 3, 100070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wss.2021.100070 Go to original source...
    72. TUIK - Turkish Statistical Institute (2019). Household Budget Statistics Micro Data Set 2019. Publication Number 4603. [Retrieved 2023-04-15] Available at: https://www.tuik.gov.tr/Kurumsal/Mikro_Veri
    73. Tunali, İ., Kirdar, M. G., Dayioğlu, M. (2021). Down and up the "U" - A synthetic cohort (panel) analysis of female labor force participation in Turkiye, 1988-2013. World Development, 146, 105609. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2021.105609 Go to original source...
    74. UN Women (2016). Women and Sustainable Development Goals. United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. Nairobi: United Nations Women.
    75. Wang, K., Che, L., Ma, C., et al. (2017). The shadow price of CO2 emissions in China's iron and steel industry. Science of the Total Environment, 598, 272-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.04.089 Go to original source...
    76. Wang, K. H., Liu, L., Lobont, O. R., et al. (2021). Energy Consumption and Health Insurance Premiums in China's Provinces: Evidence From Asymmetric Panel Causality Test. Frontiers in Public Health, 9, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.658863 Go to original source...
    77. Wang, Q., Kwan, M. P., Fan, J., et al. (2021). Racial disparities in energy poverty in the United States. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 137, 110620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110620 Go to original source...
    78. Wiedmann, T., Lenzen, M., Keyßer, L. T., et al. (2020). Scientists' warning on affluence. Nature Communications, 11(1), 3107. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-16941-y Go to original source...
    79. Xia, S., Yang, Y., Qian, X., et al. (2022). Spatiotemporal interaction and socioeconomic determinants of rural energy poverty in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 10851. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710851 Go to original source...
    80. Xu, B., Zhong, R., Hochman, G., et al. (2019). The environmental consequences of fossil fuels in China: National and regional perspectives. Sustainable Development, 27(5), 826-837. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.1943 Go to original source...
    81. Ye, Y., Koch, S. F. (2021) Measuring energy poverty in South Africa based on household required energy consumption. Energy Economics, 103, 105553. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2021.105553 Go to original source...
    82. Zhang, Y., Feng, L. (2020). The Coupling Relationship between Economic Poverty Alleviation and Ecological Poverty Alleviation in Concentrated and Contiguous Poverty-stricken Areas: Take Yunnan Province as an Example. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 615(1), 012018. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/615/1/012018 Go to original source...

    This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License (CC BY NC ND 4.0), which permits non-comercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original publication is properly cited. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.


    Return to the content